Effective Use of Turnout: Biomechanical, Neuromuscular, and Behavioral Considerations
Gayanne Grossman, Ed.M., P.T., Donna Krasnow, M.S., and Thomas M. Welsh, Ph.D.
Journal of Dance Education • Volume 5, Number 1, 2005.
Abstract
This article offers a specific example of the benefits
that might result from integrating scientific principles
into the daily practice of dance training. Using
the mastery of turnout as our focus, we 1. describe
the anatomy of turnout in terms familiar to the
dance artist, 2. explore conditioning and imagery
work designed to improve the use of turnout, and
3. outline a practical strategy for helping dancers
use new turnout skills while they are dancing.
Over the past 70 years, our understanding of
the science of human movement has blossomed.
In the world of sports, the scientific
method is frequently used to create and inform new
approaches to training. Examples include teaching
new motor skills, improving performance (speed,
agility, and power), reducing injury risk, and optimizing
the results of rehabilitation. Athletes, and
those who help them achieve exceptional levels of
human performance, have come to embrace science
for the advantages it can provide.
As a group, dancers are just beginning to appreciate the potential for using science and its spin-off technologies
to improve dance training and performance.
In addition to the benefits above, some of the specific
performance improvements the movement sciences
may be able to help dancers achieve include higher
extensions and arabesque, longer leaps, cleaner turns,
and more effective use of turnout. Once dancers, and
those who train them, begin to experience some of
the benefits of using science to inform the dancer’s
approach to training the instrument of their art
form, the human body, the adoption of science-based
enhancements is likely to become as popular among
dancers as it is among athletes.
The purpose of this article is to offer a specific
example of the benefits that might result from integrating
scientific principles into the daily practice of
dance training. Using the mastery of turnout as our
focus, we will describe the anatomy of turnout in terms
familiar to the dance artist, explore conditioning and
imagery work designed to improve the use of turnout,
and outline a practical strategy for helping dancers
use new turnout skills while they are dancing.
Confusion regarding the use of turnout is prevalent.
Dancers are frequently uncertain how much
turnout they have or how to use it properly. Medical
practitioners measuring turnout may find discrepancies
between the amount allowed by the dancer’s
bones and joints and the amount the dancer tries
to use. Dancers may create discrepancies by forcing
turnout at the feet or, if a dancer has more turnout
in one hip than the other,[1] by forcing rotation on the
less rotated leg to create the impression of symmetry
at the feet.[2] It is also common for dancers to tolerate
risky alignment compensations at the feet, pelvis, and
lower back to create the illusion of greater turnout.
Finally, dancers, compensating or not, may be unable
to control turnout in important movement situations
such as landing from a jump.
While certain forms of dance are less concerned
with turnout, using it effectively in the forms that
do employ turnout is critical to a dancer’s health and
likely to increase performance potential. Sciencebased
approaches to managing turnout may help.
Anatomy and Biomechanics of Turnout
Bones and Joints
Virtually all of the bones and joints between the spine
and the toes contribute to externally rotating the
dancer’s leg. The weight of the body is transmitted
through the bones of the spine to the pelvis, the femur,
the tibia, the ankle, and ultimately is borne by the foot.
Motion does not occur in the bones however, but in
the joints. The joints that are relevant to turnout are
the joints of the foot and ankle, the knee, the hip, the
spine, and the joint between the spine and the sacrum.
The anatomical and biomechanical contributions to
turnout will be described beginning with the foot and
moving up the leg ending with the spine.
Within the foot and ankle there is complex and
interactive motion. The foot consists of 26 bones and
31 joints. The shape of each joint varies to allow great
mobility and yet retain the potential to absorb nearly
any stress placed upon it. Pronation (dropping the
arch toward the floor or “rolling in”) is a combination of
motions generated within the foot.[3] Pronation is a normal
component of walking, running, and other forms
of locomotion because as the arch drops toward the
floor forces are distributed throughout the foot. Pronation
becomes a problem when excessive, prolonged, or
when it is a compensation for another movement that
is biomechanically unsound. Excessive and prolonged
pronation is common when turnout is forced or poorly
managed. For example a dancer can over pronate the
foot to increase forefoot abduction (the toes are pushed
outward) to promote the illusion of increased turnout.
A pronated foot is easy for dancers and teachers to see.
When the foot is neutral (without pronation) the toes
lie flat on the floor, are not pushed outward, and the
toenails face directly upward, smiling at the ceiling.
The medial border (inside edge which consists of the
great toe, the bony prominence at the highest part
of the arch, and the inside of the calcaneus) is in a
straight line. Immediately above the foot is the ankle
joint. The ankle is a hinge joint and like the hinge on a
door it moves on only one plane. The primary motions
possible at the ankle joint are dorsiflexion (flexing the
foot) and plantar flexion (pointing the foot).[3]
The knee is a modified hinge joint. The primary
actions of the knee joint are flexion (bending the
leg) and extension (straightening the leg). The knee
joint, unlike the ankle joint, has a small rotary component.
External rotation of the tibia (shin bone) on
the femur (thigh bone) is a natural consequence of
straightening the leg.[4] The purpose is to lock the knee
to give it more stability when standing. This small
amount of external rotation is usually imperceptible
to the dancer and is fully utilized when the leg is
completely straight. This action is a biomechanical
event; it cannot be voluntarily controlled, enhanced,
or restricted.[4] Knee external rotation can be forced
beyond normal with the knee bent due to ligamentous
laxity. However, this places stress on the joint and is
generally considered an unsafe practice. External
tibial torsion (twisting of the shin bone) contributes
to the overall degree of turnout.[5] We advise dancers
to find and use the turnout they have with the knee
straight, the hip extended, and the ankle dorsiflexed,
such as when standing in the first position. The first
position incorporates contributions from tibial torsion
and only the amount of knee external rotation that is
normal to the biomechanics of the joint. Any external
rotation beyond this amount is forcing the knee past
its natural limits.
The hip is a ball and socket joint with a large degree
of motion and great stability. The hip can flex and
extend (i.e., the thigh can move forward and back),
abduct and adduct (the thigh can move away from
and toward midline), and internally and externally
rotate. The stability of the hip joint is due to the bony
configuration of the top of the femur and the pelvis
and the soft tissue.[6] Most investigators agree that
approximately 60% of turnout is generated at the hip
joint and is affected by bony shape and soft tissue laxity.
It is unknown if bony structures can be altered as
a consequence of dance training or if dancers who are
genetically predisposed to greater turnout chose dance
idioms that better suit their bodies.[7] The configuration
of bones cannot change after the growth plates close
sometime between puberty and the late teenage years.
The safety of attempting to increase turnout by trying
to modify bony shape while the dancer is growing is
questionable so we recommend against it.
The bony structures of the hip joint are encased
within a thick capsule. Intertwined within the front
of the capsule is the Y ligament. The Y ligament is
the strongest ligament in the body and cannot be
stretched. It is strong enough for paraplegics, who
have little or no muscular control, to lean on it when
ambulating. The function of the Y ligament is to limit
hip extension and external rotation. The Y ligament
becomes taut when the hip is extended (in line with
the trunk) or the thigh is turned out and it becomes
slack when the hip is flexed or the thigh is turned
in.[4,8] Usually the Y ligament will limit hip extension
before the foot comes off the floor in tendu back.
The spine is divided into three distinct sections:
the cervical spine, the thoracic spine, and the lumbar spine. Actions in the lumbar spine and its relationship
with the pelvis effect pelvic stability and core
support. The lumbar spine can flex, extend, and sidebend,
but there is limited rotation in this region.[3] The
pelvis is attached to the spine by way of the sacrum,
so any pelvic movement will produce spinal motion.
The pelvis consists of a right and left half. Both
sides demonstrate slight independent movement. In
unison they move forward and backward relatively
freely because the joint between the sacrum and the
lowest lumbar vertebra allows it.[9] When both halves
of the pelvis incline forward, the position is anterior
pelvic tilt with concurrent lumbar hyperextension. To
imagine this position, think of the pelvis as a bowl full
of water, and then pour the water onto your feet by
tipping the front of the pelvis down toward the floor
and pushing the low back forward into a C shape.
It is important for dancers and their teachers to
realize that the actions of the hip, pelvis, and spine
are interdependent. Proper use of turnout provides an
excellent example. When a dancer turns out properly,
it may be possible for dancers to get stability assistance
from the Y ligament resulting in less overall
muscular effort. A taut Y ligament completely limits
any additional hip extension and external rotation.
Less muscular effort is needed to stabilize the turned
out position when the dancer has found this end range
of movement. Dancers may attempt to gain a few degrees
of additional rotation by decreasing tension on
the Y ligament with slight hip flexion, which lowers
the anterior brim of the pelvis into anterior tilt and
pulls the lumbar spine into hyperextension. By doing
this they sacrifice the stability gained from the Y ligament
and alter neutral pelvic and spinal alignment.
A dancer can feel the difference in stability by simply
comparing a neutral pelvis with one in anterior tilt.
First the dancer can stand on one leg with the hip
extended, fully turned out, and the pelvis in neutral
and sense the stable hip. Then observe the stability
decrease by tipping the pelvis forward (slight hip
flexion). With a neutral pelvis and a properly turnedout
hip the dancer may state that he is really “on” the
leg, and may have a sensation of pressure, stretch, or
length in front of the hip joint. The anterior aspect of
the hip joint, where the thigh meets the pelvis, may
appear flattened to the dancer’s teacher. (For a description
of how to find neutral pelvis, see the section
titled “Core Support and Pelvic Alignment.”)
Muscular Contributions
There are many muscular contributions to alignment
and the proper use of turnout. Pelvic alignment is affected
by the hip flexors and the abdominal muscles.
The hip flexors attach to the pelvis and the femur;
these muscles flex the hip joint or, when tight, pull
the pelvis into anterior tilt. Sub-optimal hip extension
from tight hip flexors (the pelvis is in anterior tilt, the
hip is slightly flexed, and the leg cannot line up with
the trunk) creates increased stress on the lumbar
spine during certain dance activities. For example,
when the dancer’s leg moves to the back (such as
tendu battement to the back and in arabesque) and
hip extension is restricted, the pelvis is pulled into
anterior tilt and the spine hyperextends. The less hip
extension a dancer has, the more contribution from
the lumbar spine is required for all posterior movements
of the femur.
The abdominal muscles attach to ribs and the pelvic
brim. Contraction of these muscles raises and allows
controlled lowering of the pelvic brim. Weakness of the
abdominal muscles results in an inability to maintain
correct pelvic alignment during the execution of certain
dance movements.[10,11] Proper pelvic alignment
in dancers requires that the abdominal muscles and
the hip flexor muscles cooperate. Strong abdominal
muscles cannot level the anterior pelvic brim when
the hip flexors are tight nor can stretched hip flexors
prevent anterior pelvic tilt if the abdominal muscles
are too weak.
In addition to potentially unsafe mis-alignments,
anterior tilt may interfere with maximal strength of
certain muscle groups. The length-tension relationship
of muscle means that muscles are strongest at their
resting or mid-range and weaker when elongated or
shortened. Anterior pelvic tilt is counterproductive
because the abdominal and hip extensor muscles are
lengthened and the hip flexor muscles are shortened.
These muscle groups are at a mechanical advantage
for maximal strength when neutral pelvic alignment
is maintained.
Beyond a mechanical advantage for optimal function,
the bones and joints of the trunk are acted on
by muscles working in concert with one another in a
coordinated symphony called core support. The pelvic
floor, transversus abdominus (the deepest abdominal
muscle whose fibers runs horizontally), and lumbar
multifidus (small tendon laden spinal muscles responsible
for spinal stability) must work together to
stabilize and distribute the forces encountered by the
trunk. Coordination of these three muscle groups may
be lacking in some individuals with spinal dysfunction,
including dancers. Cooperation of the psoas and
abdominals contributes to core support because the
psoas pulls the spine forward (hyperextension) and
the abdominals generate an opposite force by lifting
the anterior brim of the pelvis thereby pulling the
spine backward (flexion). When strong, these opposing
forces help stabilize the spine and pelvis.[12]
Muscles also affect turnout by acting on the hip to
turn the leg out or by providing a stabilizing counter
force on the hip and trunk. The six deep rotators
are the muscles closest to the hip joint, the smallest, but most efficient, muscles to turn the leg out.
With a fixed femur, they lift the pelvis off the femur.[6]
When the six deep rotators are recruited, the dancer
may sense “space” deep in the hip joint. The gluteus
maximus and the posterior gluteus medius, the larger,
superficial rotators, also turn the leg out in hip extension/
hyperextension. However, because they attach
above the hip joint on the pelvis and below the hip
joint on the femur, when contracted they subject the
hip joint to a compressive force. Hence the gluteals do
not provide a sense of lift. One of the challenges for
optimizing turnout is teaching dancers how to recruit
the deeper, more refined external rotators of the hip
instead of overusing the larger, surface muscles which
can cause misalignments such as tucking.
There are other muscles that act directly on turnout
or provide a stabilizing counterforce. The inner thighs
(adductor muscle group) help to turn the leg out and
balance the pelvis by simultaneously pulling the pelvis
forward (anterior tilt/hip flexion) and backward
(posterior tilt/hip extension). The outer thigh muscles
(abductor muscle group) prevent sitting into the hip
and stabilize the joint between the pelvis and sacrum.
Balancing the strength and motor organization of
these muscles groups is crucial for a dynamically
stable hip.
The muscles of the foot and ankle also contribute to
a stable turned-out position, affect correct alignment
of the lower extremity, and provide arch support.
Dancers require adequate dorsiflexion, approximately
10° past neutral standing or a 90° angle, for normal
biomechanics and shock absorption.[13] Tightness in
the calf (common with ballet dancers) or inflexibility
in the Achilles tendon are possible restrictions of
dorsiflexion resulting in a shallow plié.[2,10,11] Pronation
(dropping the arch downward) increases the depth
of the plié because it places the Achilles tendon on
slack. But as discussed, this compensation alters
normal alignment and has potentially damaging consequences
to the health of the bones and soft tissue. A
healthier choice to increase range of motion is simple
calf stretching. Arch support is provided mainly by
bony and ligamentous structures during standing. It
is theorized that the strength of certain invertors and
evertors (muscles on both sides of the ankle joint) and
the intrinsic muscles in the foot may help to prevent
excessive pronation by supporting the arch during
gait[4] and other movement situations dancers may
experience from a simple relevé to landing a leap.
Weight-Bearing Chain
With these structures in mind, envision a perfect
world, one in which the pelvis hangs erect beneath
a stable trunk, the thighs turnout with little effort,
and there is no strain on the legs and feet as they
are placed with perfect stability and alignment upon
the floor. This is the weight-bearing chain without
compensations. Compensations in the weight-bearing
chain are common in human beings, and dancers are
no exception. Correction of restrictions or compensations
will permit the dancer’s body to achieve a properly
aligned weight-bearing chain that is less prone
to injury and better able to control dance movement.
Problems of mal-alignment can often be corrected
with simple exercises or stretches that can be added
to the dancer’s daily regimen.
The dancer must have adequate length and
strength in the structures around the trunk, the hip
joint, and the ankle joint. Stretching the hip flexors
can help the dancer achieve enough hip extension
for the purpose of leveling the pelvis and finding the
stability gained by a taut Y ligament. Core support
and recruitment of the deep rotators are required elements
of a lifted and level pelvis coupled with a stable
yet beautifully turned-out leg. Motor organization
should include the pelvic floor muscles, the lumbar
multifidi, the transversus abdominus, and the hip
adductors. The hip abductors help by functioning as
lateral stabilizers. Once the restrictions of turnout are
corrected the musculature will need to be sufficiently
strong to support the joints. Fortunately, an effective
conditioning program will remedy tightness, weakness,
or lack of motor organization.
The problems described above are common compensations
that dancers employ to achieve the illusion
of greater turnout or are common restrictions to
optimum use of turnout. Corrective exercises should
be simple, effective, and easy to perform. The following
conditioning program is designed to meet these criteria
and can be performed at the dancer’s convenience
without the need for specialized equipment.
Conditioning to Improve Turnout
When conditioning was initially introduced to dancers,
it included exercises that could enhance performance
by improving levels of muscular strength and
endurance, developing the flexibility of soft tissues
(thereby increasing range of motion), and improving
the capacity of the cardiorespiratory system. Today
the concept of conditioning has expanded to include
a wide range of neuromuscular aspects, such as coordination,
proprioception, re-alignment and muscle
balancing, movement re-patterning, muscle recruitment,
and tension release. Each of these muscular and
neuromuscular areas of conditioning contributes to
optimizing the individual dancer’s range, recruitment,
and integration of turnout into complex movement
patterns through space. The purpose of this section
is to provide an overview of useful conditioning exercises
and imagery work for improving turnout. The
exercises and imagery in this article are divided into
three areas: 1. core support and pelvic alignment necessary for optimal use of turnout; 2. hip musculature
conditioning specifically related to external rotation
of the hip joint; and 3. lower limb considerations.
Core Support and Pelvic Alignment
While core support and pelvic alignment are related,
they incorporate different muscle groups and demand
a variety of conditioning exercises and images. To begin,
it is important for the dancer to understand how
to find and maintain what is known as the “neutral
pelvis.”
Start by lying on the back (supine) with the arms
and legs extended. Allow the breath to be natural
and the body segments to lie with as little tension
as possible. Imagine the pubic bone directly above
the tailbone, and the back of the head, ribcage, and
sacrum heavy and in contact with the floor. There
will be spaces under the neck and low back due to the
natural curves of the spine. Draw the thighs toward
the pelvis by bending the knees, allowing the feet to
stand in parallel on the floor. Be conscious of maintaining
the placement of the pelvis during this action; if
the pelvis tilts anteriorly (increased lumbar space) or
tucks (decreased lumbar space), repeat the reach and
draw of the legs until the action can be done with the
pelvis quiet. Roll both legs to one side, allowing them
to drop toward the floor easily. Then roll the legs back
to the parallel stance position, imagining weight in the
sacrum, and experiencing the space under the lumbar
spine. Roll the legs to the other side and again back to
center. This action can be done several times, always
establishing neutral pelvis in the stance position, not
rounding the lumbar spine so that it drops to the floor.
The same action can be done with a slight variation.
Start with both legs to one side. Move the top leg to
the opposite side like a clam opening and, when it has
gone to its full range, bring the other leg across to meet
it, like the clam closing. Go side to side with this action
of one leg initiating, the second leg following. Observe
that the legs will be in the fully open diamond position
when the pelvis is centered. Once again, using the image
of a weighted sacrum, establish a neutral pelvis.
Finish the process back in neutral parallel stance,
knees flexed to the ceiling, feet on the floor.
Now image a narrowing of the waist and a sinking
or hollowing in the front of the pelvis. This is the action
of the deepest abdominal muscle, the transverse
abdominus (TA). There will be a subtle sensation of
the waist and front of the body drawing or collecting
inward. This muscle does not significantly flex
or extend the spine so the drawing action should be
accomplished without visible movement of the pelvis.
There is some disagreement currently as to whether
it is best to exhale or inhale on the hollowing and
narrowing action. Probably the best advice is to make
sure that you are continuing to breathe and not holding
the breath, and that the breathing is natural and
not forced. Eventually, while dancing, the TA must
be recruited during the full cycle of inhaling and
exhaling, and hence should be learned in whatever
pattern is easiest for the dancer, and then attempted
throughout the cycle.
The next stage is to learn to recruit this deep
muscle during spine action. Begin by hollowing and
narrowing and then immediately roll the pelvis into
posterior tilt, or full lumbar flexion. Solomon[14,15]
calls this movement the “undercurve.” Be aware of
maintaining contact with the floor and keeping the
focus of muscle action on the abdominals, rather than
squeezing or pushing with the gluteus maximus.
It is useful to imagine the pubic bone being drawn
toward the low back just below the navel by elastic
bands, or the image of a huge ice cream scooper digging
out the front of the pelvis. After the spine flexion
action, return the pelvis to neutral each time. When
this exercise has been achieved, add the remainder
of range of motion in flexion/extension. From the undercurve,
go beyond neutral pelvis to the overcurve, a
full arching of the lumbar spine, but maintaining the
hollowing throughout so that the front of the pelvis
does not bulge outward but there is an image of the
elastic bands being pulled taut across the arch. If the
breathing becomes forced or is held, sounding and
vocalizing can assist in keeping the breathing natural.
It should be noted that it is essential for dancers to
learn hollowing in the overcurve, as this underlies so
many dance movements, such as arches, arabesque,
and leaps.
Now turn over and lie prone with the forehead
lying on top of stacked hands. The lumbar multifidi
are easier to recruit in spine extension or even slight
hyperextension. Begin first by engaging the pelvic
floor. Many teachers describe this activity as the action
we do when attempting to stop urination. Consider
adding to this idea the image of a flow of energy being
drawn up into the center of the body from the
pelvic floor. Add to this drawing up the narrowing
and hollowing experienced in the previous exercise
so that there is a magnet or vacuum in the center of
the pelvis drawing the waist in, the front of the pelvis
toward the spine, and the pelvic floor in and upward
toward the center as well. Some dancers will experience
a sensation of connection or closing of the space
on either side of the lumbar vertebrae and this is the
multifidi activating. Not all dancers will be able to feel
this muscle action, however, and this is not crucial.
While the above series deals with the deeper
muscles important for core support, there are three
other abdominal muscles that need adequate levels
of strength and flexibility to allow for good pelvic
alignment in stance and traveling work, as well as
appropriate recruitment and release. The oblique abdominals and rectus abdominus can be strengthened
using variations on curls, and curls with twists, while
lying supine with flexed (bent) knees. (It is highly
recommended that the hollowing and narrowing be
done simultaneously with these exercises, to continue
to reinforce that core support work with spine action,
and there should also be attention to continuous
breathing.) Wide elastic bands or cords can be used
to increase loading. Tie the elastic band to the barre
and lie on the back with the head toward the barre,
legs parallel, and the knees flexed. Hold the end of the
elastic band and do the curl, using the pull of the band
to increase the resistance. This exercise should not be
attempted unless there is already adequate strength
to maintain a rounded spine and the activity of hollowing
during the curl, and should not be done with
straight legs, as it can place too much stress on the
spine. (In fact, for dancers who are unable to maintain
the rounded spine and the hollowing activity during
a curl, they can turn around and face the barre, and
use the elastic band to assist them in curling up until
they have gained sufficient strength to do a correct
curl on their own.) Physioballs can be used to add
challenges to balance and enhance proprioception. It
is not recommended that the curling action come all
the way to vertical sitting, as this moves the activity
to the hip flexors, and the focus should remain the
abdominals. With very advanced dancers who already
have good abdominal strength and alignment, curls
can be done on the ball starting in a full arch of the
spine and curling to flexion, going through full range
of the muscle action.
As suggested, the dancer needs adequate length
in the hip flexors to achieve neutral pelvic alignment.
Hip flexor stretching can be done in a long low lunge,
with the front leg parallel and the back knee resting
on a mat, not the hard floor. Straightening the back leg
engages the rectus femoris, which would compromise
the effectiveness of this stretch. The pelvis should be
maintained as neutral as possible and the image of
the plumb line floating upward can help to keep the
spine long. This area of the hip can also be stretched
lying supine on a bench or table with the edge of the
table or bench bisecting the two hip joints. Hold one
leg at the chest to stabilize the pelvis and allow the
other leg to hang off the end of the table, imagining
the hanging leg heavy and released, the hip flexors
melting and lengthening. Hip flexor stretching is vitally
important to dancers in order to achieve neutral
pelvis and to be able to use turnout effectively.
If the dancer has tilted the pelvis as described
above to try to increase turnout incorrectly, the low
back (the lumbar extensor muscles) might also become
tight. Lumbar stretching can be done sitting on the
floor, hanging forward, or lying on the back hugging
the knees to the chest. For a more intense stretch,
one can sit in a chair and hang forward with the legs
separated, but this should not be done if there is low
back pain. Lumbar stretching can also be done standing
in parallel position in plié, holding onto the barre,
or kneeling over a physioball. If there is excessive tension,
the dancer can lie on small balls, placing them
in areas of greatest tension, and then breathe and
release the weight into the balls. Sometimes by doing
the hip flexor stretches and allowing the pelvis to drop
to neutral, the lumbar extensors will begin to release
tension without doing stretches for this area.
It is important to remember that even after the
muscles have been sufficiently strengthened and
stretched to allow for good alignment, the neural patterning
must still be addressed. There is literally an
infinite supply of images and the key is to individualize
the image for the dancer. Some dancers work better
with images that focus on the diamond formed by the
tail bone, pubic bone, and “sitz” bones, visualizing
this diamond remaining parallel to the floor during
movement. Another image using bony landmarks
is for the ASIS (anterior superior iliac spines, or the
two bones that protrude on the front of the pelvis) to
line up vertically over the pubic bone. Other dancers
relate more easily to images of the pelvis as a bowl
of water, and not spilling water in any direction. Still
others can use the image of the elastic bands from the
pubic bone to the low back, and adjust the length of
those elastic bands to arrive at neutral. Dancers carrying
tension in the lumbar extensors or hip flexors
can benefit from images of water pouring down the
low back or the front of the hips softening and opening
like taffy. Teachers should provide a variety of images
so dancers can choose the one(s) that work best for
them. Often the best images are the ones the dancers
create themselves.
Hip Joint
As with core support and alignment of the pelvis,
there are many useful exercises and approaches to
conditioning the various muscles that affect turnout.
The following series allows for recruiting and experiencing
the external rotation at the hip first without
weight bearing, and in conjunction with a variety of
hip movements, including flexion, extension, abduction,
and adduction.
Begin lying supine with the knees flexed, legs parallel,
and the feet on the floor. Open the knees fully,
and flex the feet, placing the heels together and just
off the floor so that the body is lying in what would
be a grand plié when standing. Imagine that there
are two magnets on the inner thighs that are drawn
together and roll toward the ceiling as the legs slowly
extend along the floor, pelvis staying neutral. Image
that the legs are being pulled by a partner and that
the outer thighs are soft and silky and long as the feet move further out in space. At the end of the extension,
imagine that the heels are glued together, and slowly
flex the feet. This is now standing first position, turned
out.
Return to the starting position (knees flexed, legs
parallel, and the feet on the floor) and staying parallel,
slide one leg out along the floor. Maintaining neutral
pelvis, keep that leg straight and flex the hip to approximately
45°, so that the knees are at the same
level. In this position, rotate the hip fully out and in
(beyond parallel), exploring the full range of movement
of hip joint rotation. It is important to maintain
a quiet pelvis and not allow any accommodating
movement in the pelvis. Images of weight and of the
sacrum attached to the floor can assist this stabilization.
Now bring that same extended leg to a higher
position, flexing the knee and hip so that the leg is
now in front attitude, and repeat the rotation out and
in. In addition to stabilizing the pelvis, it is important
to focus the effort on the rotary action of the hip joint.
With the knee flexed, the ligaments will allow for
additional rotation at the knee, but this exercise is
designed to pattern hip external rotation for standing
demi plié. Encouraging knee and foot compensations
will not be useful. There are two advantages to exploring
hip rotation in full flexion lying on the back: the
deep rotators have a greater chance of being effectively
recruited and there is the opportunity to receive visual
feedback about hip versus knee and foot action, and
to make appropriate changes in habitual behavior.
Now roll up onto the side of the body. Fold both
knees so that the feet are directly under the pelvis, and
the knees are in front of the body, the same position as
hook lying used earlier, but now lying on the side of the
body. Check that the alignment of the pelvis and spine
are neutral, and create a small space under the waist.
Maintaining neutral pelvis, rotate the top leg fully out
(by lifting the knee toward the vertical, keeping the
feet together, like the action of a clam opening) and
back down. To increase the difficulty and demand, do
the same exercise with the bottom leg extended along
the floor and turned out. This increases the balance
and torso stabilization challenge.
Third, roll onto the front of the body, hands under
the forehead. Begin with the legs parallel. Lift one
leg at a time, imagining that the leg elongates along
the floor before it lifts, and that the front of pelvis is
glued to the floor. Next, lift one leg parallel, rotate it
out fully, rotate back to parallel, and place it down.
You should alternate the legs, maintaining neutral
pelvis. Embellishments can be added, such as flexing
the feet, bending and extending the knee, and finally,
allowing the gesture hip to come off the floor, but
keeping the ribcage facing the floor, and the standing
hip connected to the floor. This use of turnout in full
hip extension requires body awareness and organization.
The adductors must be involved to keep the leg
directly behind the hip. The pelvis will rotate to allow
a greater range of motion, so the upper torso will need
to rotate in opposition. The extensors on the “standing”
side will need to activate to maintain that hip placement
on the floor. The full core support group needs
to be recruited by the dancer to encourage stability
and prevent lumbar injuries. And even the muscles
that encourage alignment in the scapulae and upper
limbs participate in this full body organization.
Return to the supine position in grand plié and do
a series of developpés and ronde de jambe exercises,
imagining that the pelvis is a sandbag and the sand
can pour into any part of the pelvis needed to give
weight to that area and maintain neutral alignment.
For example, as the right leg extends to the side developpé,
all of the sand pours into the left hip, so that
the pelvis does not rotate to the extending leg. Imagine
the extending leg as light and long, sending energy
out the foot into the distant space, and continually
rotating externally, as an activity and not a position.
Both the external rotators and the internal rotators
need to be stretched by dancers. The external rotators
can get tight from overuse and can be stretched
lying on the back, bending one knee and drawing
that parallel leg across the body, keeping the pelvis
on the floor. For some people, however, this stretch
is irritating or ineffective, and a version of the yoga
“pretzel” can be used instead. Sit with one leg folded
on the floor, and cross the opposite leg over, placing
that foot on the floor. Turn the body to face the knee
that is off the floor, and using the opposite arm, draw
the knee toward the shoulder trying to maintain both
“sitz” bones on the floor.
The internal rotators, if tight, can limit range of
motion in external rotation. Since they are also hip
abductors, an effective way to release them is to place
the hip in an adducted, externally rotated position,
which can be achieved lying on the back. Bring one
leg up toward the chest with the knee bent, turn
out, and slowly draw it across the body, maintaining
the turnout and keeping the pelvis on the floor.
It is important to stabilize the pelvis and to remain
externally rotated or the stretch will not be effective
for the target muscles (gluteus medius and minimus).
Another useful stretch can be done in hip extension,
which adds the tensor fascia latae. Start in the hip
flexor lunge stretch described previously. Slightly turn
out the front leg and rotate the pelvis to face that leg,
placing the opposite hand (as front leg) on the floor
for support. Lower the pelvis toward the floor, bending
the body sideways in the opposite direction. You
might need to move around in this position slightly
until the stretch in the target area is experienced.
To strengthen the adductors of the hip, additional
support muscles for turnout, start lying supine with the knees bent, legs parallel, and feet on the floor.
Place a small ball (like a tennis ball) between the
knees. Begin with the hollowing and the undercurve
of the pelvis, as described above, but continue rolling
the pelvis up until the spine is in a long line while
maintaining the sensation of the undercurve, hips as
high as the knees, but ribs not rising higher than the
hips. During this rolling action, squeeze the ball to
engage the adductors. This exercise also benefits the
hamstrings, gluteals, and core support musculature.
Roll back down one vertebra at a time. It is important
to keep breathing throughout the movement and to be
conscious of unnecessary neck and shoulder tension.
Eventually, remove the tennis ball, and imagine that
it is still there, and squeeze it during the rolling up
and down. The knees should not touch; they should
maintain the space of the imaginary ball.
Return to lying on the side of the body with the legs
long and parallel. Imagine you are lying on a balance
beam with the top arm and head, the ribcage, the
side of the pelvis and the lower leg (that is, the leg in
contact with the floor) all on the beam. Create a small
space under the waist. Bend the leg that is on the floor
so that the knee stays directly under the pelvis and the
foot is directly behind the knee staying in contact with
the floor. Flex the foot of the top leg and do straight
leg lifts of that leg, staying parallel or slightly turning
in and maintaining the space under the waist. (This
stabilizes the pelvis so that the hip abductors are the
target group and the pelvis is quiet.) Extend the leg
that is on the floor and turn out both legs. Bend the
top leg, placing that foot in stance on the floor, either
in front or in back of the leg that is on the floor. This
time do leg lifts of the leg that is fully extended along
the floor, keeping it turned out, to recruit the adductors
of that leg. The demand of these exercises can
be increased by adding light weights to the ankles or
by using elastic bands. These same exercises can be
done standing with elastic bands, challenging balance
while recruiting these important hip muscles.
Come to standing in first position, turned out. Take
some time to experience the alignment of the pelvis
and the organization of the legs in relation to the
spine. Move into a demi plié imagining a huge diamond
widening the knees out over the feet. Without
thinking about straightening the legs, imagine that
the pelvis is floating upward as the waist narrows and
hollows and that the magnets on the inner thighs are
being drawn together and forward. Imagine the thighs
sliding down the front of the leg and the buttocks
sliding down the back of the leg as the inner thighs
gather under the rising pelvic floor.
Lower Limbs
It is important to strengthen the muscles of the foot
and ankle to correct or prevent foot pronation, so
common in dancers with poor use of turnout. Lie on
the back, and take the legs to parallel attitudes above
the hip joints with flexed feet. Organize the legs so
the hip, knee, and center of the foot are in alignment.
Point the feet sequentially through the heel, ball,
and toe, in a rolling action. On the reverse, however,
instead of starting at the toes, squeeze the toes while
pulling back to ankle dorsiflexion and only allow the
toes to release into the extended position at the very
end. To assist this coordination, imagine that the feet
start flexed with pencils balanced across the feet at
the junction of the toes to the metatarsal heads. As
you point, push the pencils away and at the end of
the movement grab the pencils with the toes and
pull them back toward you, releasing them back to
the balance point.
Now create the letter U with the feet by circling
them down and out and then down and in. This activates
the supinators and pronators of the feet. The exercise
can be made more demanding by first spreading
the toes on the outer part of the circle, squeezing the
toes on the inner part of the circle, and then reversing
the toe action. Note that both this exercise and the
one above can be done sitting, or standing on one leg,
with or without support. These actions can also be
done with elastic bands for increased resistance. And
it is important to remember that the habitual pattern
of standing in pronation must be addressed through
awareness, imagery, and a new understanding of
turnout support from the core and the hip joint, and
not by forcing the feet backward. If additional work
is needed for the doming action of the arch, spread a
towel out on the floor and place weights on it. Keeping
the toes spread and long, gather the towel by drawing
the arches up like suction cups and pulling the towel
toward you. After doing the above exercises for the
pronators and arches, stand in parallel first, imagine
water or sand coming out of the floor on the inside of
the feet at the arches, pouring over the top of the foot,
and sinking into the floor by the fifth metatarsals. Roll
gently to the inside and outside of the foot until you
can arrive at the place where the weight is centered on
the feet. Now turn out in first position and demi plié.
See a line or string dropping from the center of the
kneecap down to the part of the foot near the second
toe. (Note that this image will not work for dancers
with significant tibial torsion. A physical therapist or
dance conditioning specialist will be able to provide
specific guidance to dancers who have this twisting
of the lower leg bones.) Using the earlier images to go
between straight legs and plié, now bring awareness
to the feet and to the weight centering.
As a final note, to address limited plié and stretch
tight calf muscles, one can do lunges at the wall with
both extended and flexed back knee with toes pointing
forward or slightly turned in. By addressing tightness in these muscles, calf stretches may also assist in
avoiding pronation.
For readers interested in learning more about the
underlying principles of physical conditioning, such
as duration, intensity, and overload, there are excellent
publications that can be consulted.[8,16-18] There is
also literature, particularly in the somatic practices,
supporting approaches using awareness, whole body
integration and connectedness, and imagery to assist
in the neuromuscular aspects of conditioning.[12,13,19-28]
Many of the exercises described in this article can be
found on the C-I Training videos,[25] and there are many
excellent sources in the literature that can provide
endless alternatives to these exercises,[8,14-18,29,30] as
well as exercises from Pilates, the Gyrotonic Expansion
System®, and Zena Rommett Floor-BarreTM. All
contain safe and thorough ways to condition and
realign the body for improved technique. It is then
the goal of the dancer and dance educator to transfer
the newly acquired skills and improved facility from
conditioning work to dance practice.
Promoting Transfer and Maintenance of Turnout Skills
We opened this article with an explanation of the
mechanical complexities of managing turnout. In
the second section, we described exercises for helping
dancers acquire the capacities needed to manage
turnout competently. Sometimes knowing what to do
and why is sufficient; often it is not. Even with careful
biomechanical assessment and skillful training, new
dance abilities often do not transfer from physical
therapy or conditioning class to technique classes,
rehearsals, and performances. Dancers can execute
a new skill in the clinic or on the Pilates Reformer,
for example, but they often revert to old movement
habits when they return to dance classes and rehearsals.
In this section, we will suggest a strategy for
helping dancers learn to use new turnout skills in all
their dancing. The use of a new skill in settings other
than the initial training setting is referred to as skill
transfer or generalization.[31-33]
Much of what we have described implies approaches
to promoting the transfer of new turnout
skills. The strategy is based in the applied science of
behavior. It is practical rather than theoretical, focusing
on what fitness trainers, teachers, and dancers
can do to encourage the general use of good turnout
skills. The recommendations are extrapolations from
research in other domains and, therefore, speculative
for dancers until relevant experimental research can
be conducted. The strategy includes six components,
each intended to complement the others. We have
separated the components to facilitate description.
In practice, some of the components are implemented
concurrently and interactively.
Sustain Training until Threshold Levels of the Essential Capacities are Achieved
Many of the new capacities dancers develop to improve
their use of turnout will be sustained by regular
dance activity once they reach a level that permits
them to be used effectively while dancing. Such a
level might be considered a threshold for practical
use. Until the threshold is reached, the new capacity
will remain susceptible to atrophy. For example, once
dancers acquire enough strength, awareness, and motor
control in the muscles that control neutral alignment
at the foot in turned-out relevé, most will use
neutral alignment because it works better. By using
the new capacity while dancing, dancers will sustain
or continue to improve their ability to hold neutral
foot alignment. Dancers whose muscles remain too
weak to achieve neutral alignment while dancing are
likely to compensate with misalignments and inefficient
movement patterns that can exaggerate their
imbalances. It is therefore essential for dancers to
continue to exercise new capacities until maintenance
thresholds are reached.
Some physical capacities are called upon so infrequently
that dancers may need to train them outside
of technique class for their whole careers. For example,
strengthening the muscles that control foot alignment
through the full range of motion may help a dancer
who one day finds herself in a precariously over-balanced
position to save the movement and avoid a
sprain. Unusually demanding dance movements that
are rehearsed infrequently point to capacities that
may require supplementary training.
Once dancers are taught relevant turnout exercises,
the next step is to help them to continue rehearsing
the skills until their new physical capacities can be
used reliably in technique class. One-visit physical
therapy or fitness training is often not enough. Multiple
initial training visits and periodic follow-up may
be needed to insure that new capacities will develop
to practically useful levels. Such follow-up visits could
also help dancers acknowledge progress (Step 5) if the
training specialist re-measures the dancers’ capacities
during return visits.
Establish a Consensus on the Desired Performance
An important challenge for those who wish to help
dancers improve their use of turnout is to get dancers
and their teachers to agree on what constitutes
effective use of turnout. Without a consensus, dancers
may use their new skills only when the trainer is
present and teachers who are not involved in making
the corrections may inadvertently un-train new
turnout skills the trainers have worked to establish.[34]
As described above, effective use of turnout involves
a balanced engagement of the most efficient outward rotators of the hip and the absence of misalignments
or compensations that can result from dancers trying
to work beyond their body’s physical capabilities.
In addition to agreeing on what constitutes effective
use of turnout, dancers and their teachers must
also agree that learning to use turnout effectively is
a worthy enterprise. The explanation of the mechanics
of turnout and the implications of poor control of
turnout offered earlier will allow dancers and teachers
to compare advantages and disadvantages. If a dancer
and her teachers cannot agree to work collaboratively
to promote the effective use of turnout, individual
work with a trainer is likely to have a temporary
effect at best. If the dancer is interested, but some
teachers are not, the dancer may need additional
strategies for working independently. If the dancer
is not interested in changing the way he or she uses
turnout, the most important problem is probably not a
physical deficiency, but a conflict in priorities.[35] In this
case the trainer’s time might be better spent helping
the dancer reassess priorities.
Agree on Indicators of Effective Use of Turnout
Often dancers need to be taught to see the effective use
of turnout and the compensations that result when
turnout is not approached properly. This can involve
making subtle discriminations. For example, dancers
who are over-developed in the gluteals or those who
have a pelvic structure that causes the gluteals to
protrude, may actually pass neutral and tuck their
pelvises. Other dancers can tilt their pelvises forward
so slightly that the misalignment of the bony structure
is difficult to see and other indicators such as tension
holding patterns must be used to detect misalignment.
Assessing correct use of turnout also involves learning
not to be distracted by conspicuous but deficient
indicators, such as placement of the feet on the floor,
when trying to assess outward rotation at the hips.
Using some training time to teach your dancer how
to see correct alignment and correct use of turnout
may be an important step in helping them establish
healthy life-long habits.
Once dancers can see the effective use of turnout
(while looking in a mirror, for example), they need to
learn to feel it in their bodies so they can use the sensation
to guide their efforts when mirrors and teachers
are unavailable. Many of the image-based instructions
in the exercise section above are designed to focus attention
on sensations dancers can use to encourage
the integration of new skills into habitual movement
patterns.[22,26] While sensation-based cues require discriminations
at least as subtle as some vision-based
cues, they may be more salient for dancers because
they occur within the dancers’ own bodies in reliable
patterns. Teaching dancers to notice these sensations
may be all that is needed to encourage their use.
Before leaving the topic of indicators, we want
to describe a transitional phase dancers may pass
through while adopting a new way of working. When
a dancer learns a new alignment, it may look and
feel wrong at first. We sometime hear, “This doesn’t
feel right” or “That’s ugly!” Only after trying-on a new
alignment and getting used to it will the dancer come
to recognize its correctness. The challenge can become
more complicated if the dancer perceives that the
performance of some critical dance skills – pirouettes,
extensions, and balances for example – seems to deteriorate
during the acquisition of a new alignment.
One could argue that if alignment is improving, the
overall performance is improving, even if a dancer’s
perception is different. However, this may be a difficult
argument to win with some dancers.
This is a risky period as the dancer has what seems
like a good reason to abandon his new way of working.
Helping dancers work through these uncomfortable
transitions is a potentially critical role for those who
train them. Physical therapists, fitness trainers, teachers,
and even peers might be enlisted to help dancers
overcome the inertia that makes old habits tenacious
by alerting dancers to the fact that these problems
may occur, by reassuring them that their new way
of working really is more effective and that the look
and feel will improve as they gain more experience
using it, and by congratulating them when they make
improvements. This requires trust and a willingness
to suspend judgment, so anything trainers can do to
build trust and a willingness to experiment might
help. Once a dancer begins to experience the benefits
of a more efficient alignment, which may take several
days or weeks, a new inertia will support further
change in the desired direction.
Learning to tolerate temporary discomfort on the
way to achieving long-term gains is a life skill that
most dancers can probably afford to improve. If a
dancer is having difficulty tolerating even temporary
discomfort with a new alignment, another choice is
to give the dancer an excuse for not looking the way
the dancer thinks she should look. A dancer might,
for example, be encouraged to use therapeutic turnout,
an amount the trainer is sure the dancer can
manage effectively, and to tell teachers that is what
she is doing, temporarily. As the ability to manage
turnout increases, the dancer’s turnout target can be
increased. If the dancer’s world does not fall apart as
a result of using therapeutic turnout, she may eventually
be willing to work in a range that is realistic for
her physical structure.
Eliminate Unnecessary Distinctions between Training and Dancing
The fourth component of the skill transfer strategy is
to minimize differences in cueing so dancers are reacting, as much as possible, to the same cues whether
training on a Reformer, participating in a technique
class, or performing in a rehearsal. If the cueing is
similar in all dance settings, new skills learned in
one setting will be more likely to be used in other settings.
[33] Two general strategies are useful in pursuing
this purpose. The first is to make the training activity
as much like dancing as possible. A few examples
may help reveal the variety of approaches available
to dancers and their teachers.
One specific approach is to adapt dance movements
for use as training exercises. Zena Rommett,
for example, teaches an adapted ballet barre with
dancers lying in one position or another on the
floor.[36] Another approach is to modify exercises
known to improve dancer capacities to make them
feel more like dancing. Dancers training on the
Reformer can, for example, be encouraged to “Do
two more repetitions but do them as though you
are dancing with the machine.” Trainers can also
use language that matches the language dancers
hear in technique classes so a side leg lift becomes
a parallel battement to second, for example, or
“now engage the deep rotators on your standing
leg as well as on the leg that is gesturing.” Another
possibility is to add a rhythmic component
to conditioning work so the supplemental training
has the same musical sensations as dancing. Some
conditioning approaches for dancers incorporate
music and rhythm.[14,25]
While exercising, dancers might be encouraged to
use the same holistic attention to detail they use in
technique classes. An emphasis on focused attention
may be one reason why training approaches like those
developed by Joseph Pilates, Zena Rommett, and
Juliu Horvath have become popular with dancers.
Finally, training can be designed to link exercises to
their related dance skills by, for example, following the
rehearsal of an exercise with rehearsal of its related
dance skills so the new awareness it generates can
be transferred immediately to dancing.
Evidence in other domains suggests that using a
variety of training approaches encourages new skills
to generalize to other settings.[33] The mechanism probably
involves minimizing irrelevant discriminations
between training and non-training settings. If dancers
can learn to control turnout during a variety of
training activities and, for a variety of trainers, then
they will have a better chance of taking their new
skills with them into technique classes and rehearsals.
This means that, while a set routine of carefully
chosen exercises may be more efficient when teaching
new alignments and movement patterns, variety may
need to be introduced after the new skills have been
acquired to facilitate the transfer of those skills to
other dance settings.
To review, the first strategy for minimizing differences
between training and dancing involves using
movements, language, images, and the same attention
to detail that is used in technique classes. The
second strategy is to use cues while training that can
also be used during technique classes, rehearsals,
and even performances to remind them of the alignments
and muscle recruitment patterns that promote
the effective use of turnout. Trainers can create new
cues, teach them to dancers during training sessions,
and then arrange for the dancers or their teachers
to use the same cues during technique classes and
rehearsals. Cues can be verbal, such as teaching a
dancer to say to herself, “Toes under knees,” or they
can be visual, such as teaching a dancer to see where
the knee is in relation to the foot below it while in a
lunge. Cues can also be kinesthetic or image-based
so the dancer learns to feel the engagement of the
deep muscles of the hip, the dropping of the greater
trochanter, the tracking of the knees directly over the
center of the feet, or the spiral of energy around the
extended leg.[25,37] Touch cues might be used to facilitate
transfer from the physical therapy clinic or conditioning
studio to technique class, but they eventually must
be faded since they cannot be used conveniently in
most rehearsals and performances.
Canadian researchers Martin and Hrycaiko [38]
demonstrated the benefits of using a verbal self-cueing
procedure with elite figure skaters. The skaters
created their own cues for challenging movements and
learned to use them audibly during skill acquisition
and rehearsals. As they prepared for a performance,
they suppressed the overt components of the cueing.
There is no reason why a similar strategy would not
work with dancers.
The variety of approaches available for fulfilling
this phase of the skill transfer strategy are open to creative
invention, as long as the focus remains on making
supplemental training look and feel like dancing.
Creating new choreography, images, and verbal cues
are skills most dance teacher have mastered. Using
these skills to encourage skill transfer would involve
only a modest refinement in teaching approach.
Acknowledge Effective Use of Turnout during Technique Classes
The fifth component of the skill transfer strategy is
intended to support new turnout skills while they are
still tentative in the dancers’ repertoire. Once dancers
use a new skill often enough to have experienced its
benefits, the skill is likely to become a habit. Until
then, supplemental reinforcement can help dancers
persist in the effort to refine their new skills. Dancers
are ultimately responsible for building their own new
habits, but their teachers can help.
Dancers can assess their performance of new turnout skills during breaks in technique classes, such
as when the teacher is checking notes or when the
dancer is waiting in line for her turn to cross the floor.
Some checking may even occur while the new skills
are being used to perform the dance movements given
in class. Recognizing successes, even small ones, will
promote the integration of new skills into the dancers’
repertoires. To optimize the use of this behavioral
tool, dancers need to learn to focus on acknowledging
successes and improvements and resist indulging
in negative critiques of their performance. Negative
critiques can be distracting and could even punish
efforts to engage in the assessments at all.
This approach can be amplified by arranging for
technique teachers to watch for and acknowledge
improvements too. Teachers might be enlisted – by
a physical therapist or fitness trainer, or even by a
courageous dancer who is determined to improve – to
provide this type of support for new turnout skills, at
least intermittently. Teachers may need to be cautioned
to avoid negative critiques when trying to help
a dancer transfer newly acquired turnout skills since
comments that feel abrasive may cause the dancer to
try to avoid the teacher’s eye.
A third approach is a little more complicated to
implement but potentially more powerful because it
employs more viewers in the assessment. Partners
can be taught to see improvements and acknowledge
them during class. For this approach to succeed, the
partners will have to be taught the specific, well-defined
role of acknowledging successes. Research has
shown the positive effects of peer tutoring procedures
in other learning situations and the tutors seem to
benefit as much as those they tutor.[39]
Recycle Through the Phases of the Strategy
A dancer undergoing change is a complex system and
any system – physical, biological, or social – requires
periodic adjustment to optimize performance. Wellhoned
systems run well because someone is continually
honing them. A dancer undergoing a change in
the way she uses turnout is likely to benefit from
similar attention.
Some of the motor skills taught in the clinic or
conditioning studio will need to be retrained when
they deteriorate. Either the dancer did not fully
comprehend the skills when they were first taught
or the skills were inadvertently untrained later. One
possibility is to revisit special training exercises periodically
as part of or just before technique class. This
can help dancers remember important aspects of the
exercises and help them to see aspects of the exercises
they were not ready to learn previously. The need for
retraining should be anticipated.
In addition, some of the indicators of ideal alignment
and execution may work for a while and then
cease to yield improvements. With repeated use,
some indicators may lose their ability to produce the
focused attention required for proper use of turnout
skills. Or, some dancers may progress beyond the
level where an initially crude indicator will suffice.
Refining the indicator may rekindle improvement. If
repeated retraining is necessary, it may be useful for
the dancer to revisit her physical therapist or trainer
for a follow-up assessment. Perhaps something else
needs fixing. Some dance programs have implemented
screening procedures to detect injury risks before
they can lead to a serious injury and to help dancers
continue to improve their movement skills.
Finally, those who wish to help dancers improve
their control of turnout should be prepared to adapt
and refine the skill-transfer strategy. New research
will expand our understanding of the mechanisms
that encourage skill transfer and practice with the
techniques will reveal opportunities for refinement
and amplification. Remaining open to, yet critically
demanding of, new ways of helping dancers use turnout
competently will insure a constantly improving
approach to this important training challenge.
Summary
Science can help us improve our approach to the
complex task of training dancers. With effective use
of turnout as our sample skill, we described its biomechanical
features and a collection of capacities dancers
need to develop in order to use turnout effectively. We
then described a program of exercises and imagery
aimed at helping dancers acquire these capacities
and the awareness needed to use them. Finally, we
described an approach to helping dancers transfer
their new turnout skills from the clinic and conditioning
studio to technique classes and beyond. We hope
you will find applications for at least some of the ideas
presented in this article and, if they help you train
dancers more effectively, we hope you will look to the
dance sciences for new ideas in the future.
About Authors
Gayanne Grossman, Ed.M. P.T., is adjunct faculty
at Temple University and Muhlenberg College
and practices physical therapy in Allentown
Pennsylvania. Donna Krasnow, M.S., is on the
dance faculty at York University in Toronto, Ontario.
Tom Welsh, Ph.D., is on the dance faculty at
Florida State University in Tallahassee, Florida.
Authorship is equal.
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